Wednesday, 23 November 2011
J-10 Vigorous Dragon F-10 Vanguard
| J-10 Vigorous Dragon F-10 Vanguard | |
|---|---|
 | |
| J-10A seen at Zhuhai airshow. | |
| Role | Multi-role combat aircraft |
| National origin | People's Republic of China |
| Manufacturer | Chengdu Aircraft Industry Corporation |
| Designer | Chengdu Aircraft Design Institute |
| First flight | 23 March 1998[1] |
| Introduction | 2005[2] |
| Status | In service |
| Primary user | People's Liberation Army Air Force, Pakistan Air Force |
| Produced | 2002–Present[3] |
| Number built | 190 (As of February 2011[update])[4] |
| Program cost | 500 million RMB allocated in 1982[1] (Project #10) |
| Unit cost | 190 million RMB (27.84 million USD; 2010)[5] |
| Developed from | Chengdu J-9[6] |
Contents[hide] |
[edit] Development
The program was initially authorized by Deng Xiaoping, who authorized spending ¥ 0.5 billion to develop an indigenous aircraft. Work on Project #10[1] started several years later in January 1988,[8] as a response to the MiG-29 Fulcrum and Su-27 Flanker then being introduced by the USSR. Development was delegated to the 611th Institute, also known as the Chengdu Aircraft Design Institute. Song Wencong (宋文骢) was the chief designer, and had previously been the chief designer of the J-7III. Xue Chishou (薛炽寿) was the chief engineer. The deputy general designer was Su Longqing (苏隆清). The aircraft was initially designed as a specialized fighter, but later became a multirole aircraft capable of both air to air combat and ground attack missions.The J-10 was officially unveiled by the Chinese government in January 2007, when photographs were published by Xinhua News Agency. The aircraft's existence was known long before the announcement, although concrete details remained scarce due to secrecy. In the official announcement Xinhua News Agency and the PLA Daily denied rumours that one of the prototypes had crashed during testing, and listed this is one of the test pilots' accomplishments. Later reports confirmed the crash and the subsequent cover-up.[9]
The first plane, "J-10 01", rolled out in November 1997. Its successful maiden was flown on 23 March 1998[1][10] by test pilot Lei Qiang (雷強) and lasted twenty minutes. Test pilot Li Zhonghua (李中华) flew aerodynamic performance trials that lasted until early December 2003; aerial refuelling tests were also completed during this time. During the trials the aircraft safely exceeded several design requirements. The last part of the test flight programme, the live firing of air-to-air missiles, was carried out by test pilot Xu Yongling (徐勇凌) from 21 December 2003 to 25 December 2003.
The aircraft were first delivered to the 13th Test Regiment on 23 February 2003. The aircraft was declared 'operational' in December of the same year, after 18 years in development.[1][11] The first operational regiment was the 131st Regiment of the 44th Division. It is rumoured that a regiment of the 3rd Division also received J-10s.
[edit] Export
In late-February 2006, the then-President of Pakistan, Pervez Musharraf, toured the J-10 and JF-17 production facilities, and had the opportunity to sit in the cockpits of both aircraft. The Pakistan Air Force (PAF) was offered the J-10 during the visit,[12] and the purchase of 36 J-10s was approved on 12 April 2006. The J-10s would be modified to Pakistani requirements, and be delivered to two PAF squadrons in 2014–2015 as the FC-20.[13][14][15]AVIC plans to aggressively market an upgraded J-10, most likely the J-10B, once development is complete. Several countries besides Pakistan have shown interest.[16]
[edit] Foreign participation
 | This section needs attention from an expert on the subject. See the talk page for details. WikiProject Aviation or the Aviation Portal may be able to help recruit an expert. (March 2009) |
Other sources pointed to stronger foreign assistance than claimed by the Chinese. Official US investigations discovered that some of the Lavi's technology had been sold to China by the Israelis,[19] despite Israeli claims to the contrary. Russian engineers, designers and technical specialists who claimed to have worked in Chinese defence projects, including those at Chengdu, also believed the J-10 had ties to the Lavi. One source alleged that high-level Chinese officials had claimed to have a Lavi prototype at one of Chengdu's facilities. Another claimed that two years after the J-10's maiden flight, the Chinese used Russian wind tunnels to test J-10 aerodynamic models.[20]
In 2006, the Russian Siberian Aeronautical Research Institute (SibNIA) confirmed its participation in the J-10 program; SibNIA claimed to have only observed and instructed as "scientific guides", while its engineers also believed the J-10 was not only based on the Lavi, but also incorporated significant foreign technology and expertise.[21]
Delsen Testing Laboratories in Glendale, California also tested composite materials related to the J-10 in 1990.[22]
The J-10 is powered by the Russian AL-31 engine.
[edit] Design
 | This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2010) |
Some US military analysts believed that J-10 could pose a serious challenge to F/A-18E in terms of maneuverabiliy.[23]
[edit] Airframe and cockpit
Constructed from metal alloys and composite materials for high strength and low weight, the airframe's aerodynamic layout adopts a "tail-less canard delta" wing configuration. A large delta wing is mid-mounted towards the rear of the fuselage, while a pair of canards (or foreplanes) are mounted higher up and towards the front of the fuselage, behind and below the cockpit. This configuration provides very high agility, especially at high speed. A large vertical tail is present on top of the fuselage and small ventral fins underneath the fuselage provide further stability.A rectangular air intake is located underneath the fuselage, providing the air supply to the engine. Also under the fuselage and wings are 11 hardpoints, used for carrying various types of weaponry and drop-tanks containing extra fuel.
The retractable undercarriage comprises a steerable pair of nose-wheels underneath the air intake and two main gear wheels towards the rear of the fuselage.
The cockpit is covered by a two-piece bubble canopy providing 360 degrees of visual coverage for the pilot. The canopy lifts upwards to permit cockpit entry and exit. The Controls take the form of a conventional centre stick and a throttle stick located to the left of the pilot. These also incorporate "hands on throttle and stick" (HOTAS) controls. A zero-zero ejection seat is provided for the pilot, permitting safe ejection in an emergency even at zero altitude and zero speed.
[edit]
[edit] Flight control system
Due to the J-10's aerodynamically unstable design, a digital quadruplex-redundant fly-by-wire flight control system aids the pilot in flying the aircraft. Chinese aircraft designer Yang Wei is claimed to be the chief designer of the fly-by-wire flight control system, although this is disputed by analyst Richard Fisher who credits Israeli consultants for developing the system.[24] The flight control computer provides automatic flight coordination and keeps the aircraft from entering potentially dangerous situations such as unintentional slops or skids. This therefore frees the pilot to concentrate on his intended tasks during combat.[edit] Flight instrumentation
Information is provided visually to the pilot via three liquid crystal (LCD) Multi-function displays (MFD) in the cockpit. Chief designer of the flight instrumentation panel was Zhou Han (周寒, unrelated to the chief test engineer), who was in charge of both the CRT display design at the early stages of development and the later LCD design that is currently adopted by J-10 in service.The LCD display panel entered service shortly after 2000. The LCD displays and earlier CRT displays for J-10 (and that of WZ-10, J-11 and JH-7) are manufactured by the Suzhou Long Wind Machinery Plant (苏州长风机械总厂), later reorganized as AVIC Radar and Avionics Equipment Research Institute (中航雷达与电子设备研究院).
In addition to the flight instrumentation, a Chinese holographic head-up display (HUD) is also present. The HUD shows important flight and combat related information such as targeting cues. It can also be used as a radar scope, a feature believed to be inspired by the HUDs of Russian aircraft, that allows the pilot to keep his eyes focused at infinity while working with his radar. Monochrome images from electro-optical avionics pods (FLIR and targeting pods) can also be displayed on the HUD. The HUD was designed to overcome issues with the HUDs of Russian fighters, which experienced significant fogging problems when deployed in humid and tropical zones of China, as they were originally designed for deployment in arid Arctic/sub-Arctic zones. The modular design of the HUD system and use of the MIL-STD-1553B databus architecture allows HUDs of Western origin to be integrated if desired by the user.
[edit]
[edit] Electronic warfare
A comprehensive internal electronic counter-measures (ECM) suite is likely to be present, which can be supplemented by active jammer pods such as the BM/KG300G carried externally on the aircraft's hardpoints. Additionally, the KZ900 signals intelligence (SIGINT) pod can be carried for reconnaissance missions.[edit] Infra-Red Search and Track
A Chinese infra-red search and track (IRST) system developed by the Sichuan Changhong Electric Appliance Corporation, the Type Hongguang-I (Rainbow Light-I) Electro-Optical Radar (虹光-Ⅰ型光电雷达), is integrated with the J-10. It is a third generation optronics system utilising a HgCdTe focal array with imaging infra-red (ImIR) capability. Receiving its certification on 3 March 2005 and subsequently entering service with the PLAAF, the system was revealed to the public one year later at a conference on the Sichuan province of China, during which the system was demonstrated to visiting officials. Based on the limited information released, Type Hongguang-I has a maximum range of 75 km.Although the Type Hongguang-I was designed to be lighter and more compact than similar Russian systems so that it could be fitted in the nose of J-10 while leaving enough space for a suitable radar, the current production model J-10 does not have enough space and must carry a podded version externally on one of the aircraft's hardpoints. However, recently released images show a modified variant of the J-10 with what is believed to be an IRST device fitted to the upper starboard side of the nose (see Variants). Type Hongguang-I is also designed to be compatible with China's Shenyang J-11, Shenyang J-8 and Xian JH-7 combat aircraft, as well as the Xian H-6 bomber and Sino-Pakistani JF-17 light-weight fighter.
[edit] Radar and targeting
On June 14, it was announced by Chinese state media that a version of J-10 has been equipped with a phased array radar.[25]According to Chengdu Aircraft Industry Corporation officials the J-10 uses a multi-mode fire-control radar designed in China. The radar has a mechanically scanned planar array antenna and is capable of tracking 10 targets. Of the 10 targets tracked, 2 can be engaged simultaneously with semi-active radar homing missiles or 4 can be engaged with active radar homing missiles.[26]
The radar is believed to be designed by the Nanjing Research Institute of Electronic Technology (NRIET), designated KLJ-10 and a smaller variant is claimed to be installed on the JF-17 light-weight fighter.[27] Believed to be based on technologies from Russia, Israel or a combination of both, the radar should be comparable to Western fighter radar designs of the 1990s. It may also be replaced by more advanced radars of other origin on export versions of the J-10. The Italian FIAR (now SELEX Galileo) Grifo 2000/16, has been offered to the Pakistan Air Force for installation on the J-10, should the PAF induct the aircraft.[26]
In Chinese military technology related exhibitions, various helmet-mounted display (HMD) systems developed by Chinese organisations have been shown. It is believed that the J-10 is integrated with such a system to assist the pilot in targeting enemy aircraft. The J-10 has also been featured in photos and models carrying the FILAT (Forward-looking Infra-red Laser Attack Targeting) pod for laser designation of targets and the Blue Sky navigation / forward looking infra-red (FLIR) pod for low visibility, low altitude flights.
[edit] Propulsion
The AL-31FN was initially expected to be replaced by a domestic powerplant developed and manufactured in China, the WS-10A (WoShan-10A) Taihang turbofan, giving a thrust of 129 kN (13,200 kgf or 29,101 lbf); however, the PLAAF delayed integration of the WS-10 onto the aircraft given development difficulties with the engine.[28][29]
Russia has offered to provide China with a version of the AL-31FN that provides 12,500 kgf thrust and a 2,000-hour service life.[30]
[edit] Weaponry and external loads
The aircraft's internal armament consists of a 23 mm twin-barrel cannon, located underneath the port side of the intake. Other weaponry and equipment is mounted externally on 11 hardpoints, to which 6,000 kg (13,228 lb) [31] of weaponry such as missiles and bombs, drop-tanks containing fuel and other equipment such as avionics pods can be attached.Air-to-air missiles deployed may include short range air-to-air missiles such as the PL-8 and PL-9, medium-range radar-guided air-to-air missiles such as the PL-11 and PL-12, unguided and precision guided munitions such as laser-guided bombs, anti-ship missiles such as the YJ-9K and anti-radiation missiles such as the PJ-9.
[edit] Variants
- J-10A: Single seat multi-role variant. The export designation is F-10A.[32]
- J-10S: Twin-seat fighter-trainer variant of the J-10A. The forward fuselage of the aircraft is stretched to accommodate an additional pilot seat, two pilots sit in tandem with a single large bubble canopy. Also incorporates an enlarged dorsal spine which may accommodate additional avionics equipment or fuel. As well as serving as training aircraft, the J-10S may also be used for the ground attack role where the rear seat pilot would act as the weapon systems operator.[33]
- J-10AH: Naval version of the J-10A.[34]
- J-10B: An upgraded variant of the J-10, also known as the "Super-10."[35] The existence of the J-10B is not confirmed by official Chinese sources, but numerous images of a new J-10 variant have surfaced, showing a prototype J-10 modified with increased RAM, MAW, a diverterless supersonic inlet (DSI), an infra-red search and track (IRST) sensor, modified vertical stabiliser, ventral fins, housings fitted under the wings, and a modified nose.[36][37] It had its first flight in December 2008.
- FC-20: An export variant of the J-10 designed for the Pakistan Air Force.[38] First flight stated to take place in 2009.[39]
[edit] Operators
- People's Liberation Army Air Force: 190 (As of February 2011[update]).[4]
- Pakistan Air Force: 36 on order (As of February 2011[update]) for delivery in 2012, with an eventual requirement for 150.[4]
[edit] Notable accidents
There have been four known crashes of the J-10 to date. The first crash was of a prototype combat aircraft during testing in 1998 with the most likely cause cited as failure of the fly-by-wire flight control system.[9]In 2007, a second crash occurred near Guilin involving a J-10 of the PLAAF's 2nd Division.[citation needed]
A third crash occurred in August 2009 when pilot Meng Fansheng was forced to eject from his aircraft when the aircraft suffered an abrupt loss of engine power. An official investigation by the PLAAF also echoed that the crash was the result of the failure of the AL-31F engine on the aircraft.[citation needed]
A fourth crash involving an active duty aircraft occurred on April 22, 2010, killing the commander of the 9th Division. An attempted government cover up failed when the pilot's funeral gained prominence.[9] Official reports blamed pilot error.
On 7 March 2009, an active duty aircraft piloted by Lieutenant Colonel Li Feng suffered a total avionics failure during a tactical training exercise. Li Feng landed the aircraft safely and blamed the failure to smoke in the cockpit; the smoke was presumably generated by the engine and leaked in from the environmental control system.[40]
[edit] Specifications (J-10A)
General characteristics- Crew: 1 (basic), 2 (trainer variant)[11]
- Length: 16.43 m [28] (53 ft 10 in)
- Wingspan: 9.75 m [28] (31 ft 11 in)
- Height: 4.78 m (15.7 ft)
- Wing area: 39 m² (419.8 ft²)
- Empty weight: 9,750 kg (21,495 lb [41])
- Loaded weight: 14,876 kg (32,797 lb)
- Useful load: 4,500 kg[42][43] (9,920 lb)
- Max takeoff weight: 19,277 kg (42,500 lb[11])
- Powerplant: 1 × Saturn-Lyulka AL-31FN or WS-10A Taihang turbofan
- Dry thrust: 79.43 kN / 89.17 kN (17,860 lbf / 20,050 lbf)
- Thrust with afterburner: 122.5 kN[11] / 132 kN (27,557 lbf / 29,101 lbf)
- Maximum speed: Mach 2.2 at altitude,[28][44] Mach 1.2 at sea level[7]
- g-limits: +9/-3 g (+88/-29 m/s², +290/-97 ft/s²[7])
- Combat radius: 1600 km[45] with in-flight refueling
1100 km without in flight refueling[34] () - Ferry range: 3200 km [34] ()
- Service ceiling: 20,300 m [34] (66,601 ft [34][46])
- Wing loading: 335 kg/m² (69 lb/ft²)
- Thrust/weight: 0.98 (with AL-31); 1.03 (with WS-10A)
- Guns: 1× 23mm twin-barrel cannon
- Hardpoints: 11 in total (6× under-wing, 5× under-fuselage) with a capacity of 6,000 kg (13,228 lb) external fuel and ordnance [31]
- Rockets: 90 mm unguided rocket pods
- Missiles:
- Bombs: laser-guided bombs (LT-2), glide bombs (LS-6) and unguided bombs
- Others:
- Up to 3 external fuel drop-tanks (1× under-fuselage, 2× under-wing) for extended range and loitering time
- Unnamed phased array radar [25]
- NRIET KLJ-10 multi-mode fire-control radar
- Externally-mounted avionics pods:
F-16 Fighting Falcon
"F-16" redirects here. For other uses, see F16.
| F-16 Fighting Falcon | |
|---|---|
 | |
| A USAF F-16C over Iraq in 2008 | |
| Role | Multirole jet fighter |
| National origin | United States |
| Manufacturer | General Dynamics Lockheed Martin |
| First flight | 2 February 1974 |
| Introduction | 17 August 1978 |
| Status | Active, in production |
| Primary users | United States Air Force 25 other users (see operators page) |
| Number built | 4,450+ |
| Unit cost | F-16A/B: US$14.6 million (1998 dollars)[1] F-16C/D: US$18.8 million (1998 dollars)[1] |
| Variants | General Dynamics F-16 VISTA |
| Developed into | Vought Model 1600 General Dynamics F-16XL Mitsubishi F-2 |
The Fighting Falcon is a dogfighter with numerous innovations including a frameless bubble canopy for better visibility, side-mounted control stick to ease control while maneuvering, a seat reclined 30 degrees to reduce the effect of g-forces on the pilot, and the first use of a relaxed static stability/fly-by-wire flight control system that makes it a highly nimble aircraft. The F-16 has an internal M61 Vulcan cannon and has 11 hardpoints for mounting weapons, and other mission equipment.[1] Although the F-16's official name is "Fighting Falcon", it is known to its pilots as the "Viper", due to it resembling a viper snake and after the Battlestar Galactica Colonial Viper starfighter.[5][6]
In addition to active duty US Air Force, Air Force Reserve Command, and Air National Guard units, the aircraft is also used by the USAF aerial demonstration team, the U.S. Air Force Thunderbirds, and as an adversary/aggressor aircraft by the United States Navy. The F-16 has also been procured to serve in the air forces of 25 other nations.[2]
Contents[hide] |
[edit] Development
[edit] Lightweight Fighter Program
Main article: Lightweight Fighter program
Experience in the Vietnam War revealed the need for air superiority fighters and better air-to-air training for fighter pilots.[7] Based on his experiences in the Korean War and as a fighter tactics instructor in the early 1960s Colonel John Boyd with mathematician Thomas Christie developed the Energy-Maneuverability theory to model a fighter aircraft's performance in combat. Boyd's work called for a small, lightweight aircraft that could maneuver with the minimum possible energy loss, and which also incorporated an increased thrust-to-weight ratio.[8][9] In the late 1960s, Boyd gathered a group of like-minded innovators that became known as the Fighter Mafia and in 1969 they secured DoD funding for General Dynamics and Northrop to study design concepts based on the theory.[10][11]Air Force F-X proponents remained hostile to the concept because they perceived it as a threat to the F-15 program. However, the Advanced Day Fighter concept, renamed F-XX gained civilian political support under the reform-minded Deputy Secretary of Defense David Packard, who favored the idea of competitive prototyping. As a result in May 1971, the Air Force Prototype Study Group was established, with Boyd a key member, and two of its six proposals would be funded, one being the Lightweight Fighter (LWF). The Request for Proposals issued on 6 January 1972 called for a 20,000-pound (9,100 kg) class air-to-air day fighter with a good turn rate, acceleration and range, and optimized for combat at speeds of Mach 0.6–1.6 and altitudes of 30,000–40,000 feet (9,100–12,000 m). This was the region where USAF studies predicted most future air combat would occur. The anticipated average flyaway cost of a production version was $3 million. This production plan, though, was only notional as the USAF had no firm plans to procure the winner.[12][13]
[edit] Finalists selected and flyoff
The YF-16 was developed by a team of General Dynamics engineers led by Robert H. Widmer.[16] The first YF-16 was rolled out on 13 December 1973, and its 90-minute maiden flight was made at the Air Force Flight Test Center (AFFTC) at Edwards AFB, California, on 2 February 1974. Its actual first flight occurred accidentally during a high-speed taxi test on 20 January 1974. While gathering speed, a roll-control oscillation caused a fin of the port-side wingtip-mounted missile and then the starboard stabilator to scrape the ground, and the aircraft then began to veer off the runway. The GD test pilot, Phil Oestricher, decided to lift off to avoid crashing the machine, and safely landed it six minutes later. The slight damage was quickly repaired and the official first flight occurred on time. The YF-16's first supersonic flight was accomplished on 5 February 1974, and the second YF-16 prototype first flew on 9 May 1974. This was followed by the first flights of the Northrop's YF-17 prototypes on 9 June and 21 August 1974, respectively. During the flyoff, the YF-16s completed 330 sorties for a total of 417 flight hours;[17] the YF-17s flew 288 sorties, covering 345 hours.[18]
[edit] Air Combat Fighter competition
Increased interest would turn the LWF into a serious acquisition program. North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) allies Belgium, Denmark, the Netherlands, and Norway were seeking to replace their F-104G fighter-bombers.[19] In early 1974, they reached an agreement with the U.S. that if the USAF ordered the LWF winner, they would consider ordering it as well. The USAF also needed to replace its F-105 and F-4 fighter-bombers. The U.S. Congress sought greater commonality in fighter procurements by the Air Force and Navy, and in August 1974 redirected Navy funds to a new Navy Air Combat Fighter (NACF) program that would be a navalized fighter-bomber variant of the LWF. The four NATO allies had formed the "Multinational Fighter Program Group" (MFPG) and pressed for a U.S. decision by December 1974; thus the USAF accelerated testing.[20][21][22]
The chief reasons given by the Secretary were the YF-16's lower operating costs, greater range and maneuver performance that was "significantly better" than that of the YF-17, especially at supersonic speeds. Another advantage of the YF-16 – unlike the YF-17 – used the Pratt & Whitney F100 turbofan engine, the same powerplant used by the F-15; such commonality would lower the cost of engines for both programs.[26] Secretary McLucas announced that the USAF planned to order at least 650, possibly up to 1,400 production F-16s. In the Navy Air Combat Fighter (NACF) competition, on 2 May 1975 the Navy selected the YF-17 as the basis for what would become the McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet.[27][28]
[edit] Into production
The U.S. Air Force initially ordered 15 "Full-Scale Development" (FSD) aircraft (11 single-seat and four two-seat models) for its flight test program, but this was reduced to eight (six F-16A single-seaters and two F-16B two-seaters).[29] The YF-16 design was altered for the production F-16. The fuselage was lengthened by 10.6 in (0.269 m), a larger nose radome was fitted for the AN/APG-66 radar, wing area was increased from 280 sq ft (26 m2) to 300 sq ft (28 m2), the tailfin height was decreased, the ventral fins were enlarged, two more stores stations were added, and a single door replaced the original nosewheel double doors. The F-16's weight was increased by 25% over the YF-16 by these modifications.[30][31]
On 7 June 1975, the four European partners, now known as the European Participation Group, signed up for 348 aircraft at the Paris Air Show. This was split among the European Participation Air Forces (EPAF) as 116 for Belgium, 58 for Denmark, 102 for the Netherlands, and 72 for Norway. There would be two European production lines, one in the Netherlands at Fokker's Schiphol-Oost facility and the other at SABCA's Gossellies plant in Belgium; production would be divided among them as 184 and 164 units, respectively. Norway's Kongsberg Vaapenfabrikk and Denmark's Terma A/S also manufactured parts and subassemblies for EPAF aircraft. European co-production was officially launched on 1 July 1977 at the Fokker factory. Beginning in November 1977, Fokker-produced components were sent to Fort Worth for fuselage assembly, which were in turn shipped back to Europe for final assembly of EPAF aircraft at the Belgian plant on 15 February 1978, with deliveries to the Belgian Air Force from January 1979. The Dutch line started up in April 1978 and delivered its first aircraft to the Royal Netherlands Air Force in June 1979. In 1980 the first aircraft were delivered to the Royal Norwegian Air Force by SABCA and to the Royal Danish Air Force by Fokker.[33][34]
During the late 1980s and 1990s, Turkish Aerospace Industries (TAI) has produced 232 Block 30/40/50 F-16s on a production line in Ankara under license for the Turkish Air Force. TAI also produced 30 Block 50 from 2010, and built 46 Block 40s for Egypt in the mid-1990s. Korean Aerospace Industries opened a domestic production line for the KF-16 program, producing 140 Block 52s from the mid-1990s to mid-2000s. If India had selected the F-16IN for its Medium Multi-Role Combat Aircraft procurement, a sixth F-16 production line would be built in India to produce at least 108 fighters.[35]
[edit] Improvements and upgrades
In the 1980s, the Multinational Staged Improvement Program (MSIP) was conducted to evolve new capabilities for the F-16, mitigate risks during technology development, and ensure the aircraft's worth. The program upgraded the F-16 in three stages. The MSIP process permitted the introduction of new capabilities quicker, at lower costs and with reduced risks, compared to traditional independent programs to upgrade and modernize aircraft.[38] Other upgrade programs, including service life extensions, have been conducted on the F-16.[39]
[edit] Design
[edit] Overview
Comparison between F-16's inset cannons, early aircraft had four vents while later aircraft had two.
The Fighting Falcon includes innovations such as a frameless bubble canopy for better visibility, side-mounted control stick, and reclined seat to reduce g-force effects on the pilot. The F-16 has an internal M61 Vulcan cannon in the left wing root and has 11 hardpoints for mounting various missiles, bombs and pods. It was also the first fighter aircraft purpose built to sustain 9-g turns. It has a thrust-to-weight ratio greater than one, providing power to climb and accelerate vertically.[1]
Early models could be armed with up to six AIM-9 Sidewinder heat-seeking short-range air-to-air missiles (AAM), including rail launchers on each wingtip. Some F-16s can employ the AIM-7 Sparrow medium-range AAM; more recent versions can equip the AIM-120 AMRAAM. It can also carry other AAM; a wide variety of air-to-ground missiles, rockets or bombs; electronic countermeasures (ECM), navigation, targeting or weapons pods; and fuel tanks on 11 hardpoints – six under the wings, two on wingtips and three under the fuselage.
[edit] General configuration
The F-16 was designed to be relatively inexpensive to build and simpler to maintain than earlier-generation fighters. The airframe is built with about 80% aviation-grade aluminum alloys, 8% steel, 3% composites, and 1.5% titanium. The leading-edge flaps, tailerons, and ventral fins make use of bonded aluminum honeycomb structures and graphite epoxy laminate coatings. The number of lubrication points, fuel line connections, and replaceable modules is significantly lower than predecessors; 80% of access panels can be accessed without stands.[35] The air intake was designed: "far enough forward to allow a gradual bend in the air duct up to the engine face to minimize flow losses and far enough aft so it wouldn't weigh too much or be too draggy or destabilizing."[41]
Although the LWF program called for an aircraft structural life of 4,000 flight hours, capable of achieving 7.33 g with 80% internal fuel; GD's engineers decided to design the F-16's airframe life for 8,000 hours and for 9-g maneuvers on full internal fuel. This proved advantageous when the aircraft's mission changed from solely air-to-air combat to multi-role operations. Since introduction, changes in operational usage and additional systems have increased aircraft weight, necessitating several programs to strengthen its structure.[42]
[edit] Wing and strake configuration
The vortex lift effect is increased by extensions of the leading edge at the wing root (the juncture with the fuselage) known as a strake. Strakes act as an additional elongated, short-span, triangular wing running from the actual wing root to a point further forward on the fuselage. Blended into the fuselage and along the wing root, the strake generates a high-speed vortex that remains attached to the top of the wing as the angle of attack increases, thereby generating additional lift and thus allowing greater angles of attack without stalling. The use of strakes also allows a smaller, lower-aspect-ratio wing, which increases roll rates and directional stability while decreasing weight. Deeper wingroots also increase structural strength and increase internal fuel volume.[42]
[edit] Negative stability and Fly-by-wire
F-16C from the South Carolina Air National Guard in-flight over North Carolina equipped with AMRAAM missiles
Wisconsin ANG F-16s over Madison, Wisconsin. The tail of the formation's lead ship features a special 60th Anniversary scheme for the 115th Fighter Wing.
To counter the tendency to depart from controlled flight—and avoid the need for constant trim inputs by the pilot, the F-16 has a quadruplex (four-channel) fly-by-wire (FBW) flight control system (FLCS). The flight control computer (FLCC) accepts pilot input from the stick and rudder controls, and manipulates the control surfaces in such a way as to produce the desired result without inducing control loss. The FLCC conducts thousands of measurements per second on the aircraft's flight attitude to automatically counter deviations from the pilot-set flight path; leading to a common aphorism among pilots: "You don't fly an F-16; it flies you."[47]
The FLCC further incorporates limiters that govern movement in the three main axes based on current attitude, airspeed and angle of attack (AOA), and prevent control surfaces from inducing instability such as slips or skids, or a high AOA inducing a stall. The limiters also prevent maneuvers that would exert more than a 9 g load.[48] Although each axis of movement is limited by the FLCC, flight testing revealed that "assaulting" multiple limiters at high AOA and low speed can result in an AOA far exceeding the 25° limit; colloquially referred to as "departing". This cause a deep stall; a near-freefall at 50° to 60° AOA, either upright or inverted. While at a very high AOA, the aircraft's attitude is stable but control surfaces are ineffective and the aircraft's pitch limiter locks the stabilators at an extreme pitch-up or pitch-down attempting to recover; the pitch-limiting can be overridden so the pilot can "rock" the nose via pitch control to recover.[49]
Unlike the YF-17, which had hydromechanical controls serving as a backup to the FBW, Grumman took the innovative step of eliminating mechanical linkages between the stick and rudder pedals and the aerodynamic control surfaces. The F-16 is entirely reliant on its electrical systems to relay flight commands, instead of traditional mechanically-linked controls, leading to the early moniker of "the electric jet". The quadruplex design permits "graceful degradation" in flight control response in that the loss of one channel renders the FLCS a "triplex" system.[50] The FLCC began as an analog system on the A/B variants, but has been supplanted by a digital computer system beginning with the F-16C/D Block 40.[51][52] The F-16's controls suffered from a sensitivity to static electricity or electrostatic discharge (ESD). Up to 70–80% of the C/D models' electronics were vulnerable to ESD.[53]
[edit] Cockpit and ergonomics
One feature of the F-16 for air-to-air combat performance is the cockpit's exceptional field of view. The single-piece, bird-proof polycarbonate bubble canopy provides 360° all-round visibility, with a 40° look-down angle over the side of the aircraft, and 15° down over the nose (compared to the more common 12–13° of preceding aircraft); the pilot's seat is elevated for this purpose. Furthermore, the F-16's canopy lacks the forward bow frame found on many fighters, which is an obstruction to a pilot's forward vision.[35][54]
The pilot flies primarily by means of an armrest-mounted side-stick controller (instead of a traditional center-mounted stick) and an engine throttle; conventional rudder pedals are also employed. To enhance the pilot's degree of control of the aircraft during high-g combat maneuvers, various switches and function controls were moved to centralised "hands on throttle-and-stick (HOTAS)" controls upon both the controllers and the throttle. Hand pressure on the side-stick controller is transmitted by electrical signals via the FBW system to adjust various flight control surfaces to maneuver the F-16. Originally the side-stick controller was non-moving, but this proved uncomfortable and difficult for pilots to adjust to, sometimes resulting in a tendency to "over-rotate" during takeoffs, so the control stick was given a small amount of "play". Since introduction on the F-16, HOTAS controls have become a standard feature on modern fighters.[58]
The F-16 has a head-up display (HUD), which projects visual flight and combat information in front of the pilot without obstructing the view; being able to keep his head "out of the cockpit" improves a pilot's situational awareness.[59] Further flight and systems information are displayed on multi-function displays (MFD). The left-hand MFD is the primary flight display (PFD), typically showing radar and moving-maps; the right-hand MFD is the system display (SD), presenting information about the engine, landing gear, slat and flap settings, and fuel and weapons status. Initially, the F-16A/B had monochrome cathode ray tube (CRT) displays; replaced by color liquid crystal displays on the Block 50/52.[35][60] The MLU introduced compatibility with night-vision goggles (NVG). The Boeing Joint Helmet Mounted Cueing System (JHMCS) is available from Block 40 onwards, for targeting based on where the pilot's head faces, unrestricted by the HUD, using high-off-boresight missiles like the AIM-9X.[61]
[edit] Fire-control radar
The F-16A/B was originally equipped with the Westinghouse AN/APG-66 fire-control radar. Its slotted planar-array antenna was designed to be compact to fit into the F-16's relatively small nose. In uplook mode, the APG-66 uses a low pulse-repetition frequency (PRF) for medium- and high-altitude target detection in a low-clutter environment, and in downlook employs a medium PRF for heavy clutter environments. It has four operating frequencies within the X band, and provides four air-to-air and seven air-to-ground operating modes for combat, even at night or in bad weather. The Block 15's APG-66(V)2 model added a more powerful signal processor, higher output power, improved reliability and increased range in cluttered or jamming environments. The Mid-Life Update (MLU) program introduced a new model, APG-66(V)2A, which features higher speed and more memory.[62]The AN/APG-68, an evolution of the APG-66, was introduced with the F-16C/D Block 25. The APG-68 has greater range and resolution, as well as 25 operating modes, including ground-mapping, Doppler beam-sharpening, ground moving target, sea target, and track-while-scan (TWS) for up to 10 targets. The Block 40/42's APG-68(V)1 model added full compatibility with Lockheed Martin Low-Altitude Navigation and Targeting Infra-Red for Night (LANTIRN) pods, and a high-PRF pulse-Doppler track mode to provide continuous-wave (CW) target illumination for semi-active radar-homing (SARH) missiles like the AIM-7 Sparrow. Block 50/52 F-16s initially used the more reliable APG-68(V)5 which has a programmable signal processor employing Very-High-Speed Integrated Circuit (VHSIC) technology. The Advanced Block 50/52 (or 50+/52+) are equipped with the APG-68(V)9 radar, with a 30% greater air-to-air detection range and a synthetic aperture radar (SAR) mode for high-resolution mapping and target detection-recognition. In August 2004, Northrop Grumman were contracted to upgrade the APG-68 radars of the Block 40/42/50/52 aircraft to the (V)10 standard, providing the F-16 with all-weather autonomous detection and targeting for Global Positioning System (GPS)-aided precision weapons. It also adds SAR mapping and terrain-following (TF) modes, as well as interleaving of all modes.[35]
The F-16E/F is outfitted with Northrop Grumman's AN/APG-80 Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radar, making it only the third fighter to be so equipped.[63] Northrop Grumman is continuing development upon this latest radar, to form the Scalable Agile Beam Radar (SABR).[64] In July 2007, Raytheon announced that it was developing a Next Generation Radar (RANGR) based on its earlier AN/APG-79 AESA radar as a competitor to Northrop Grumman's AN/APG-68 and AN/APG-80 for the F-16.[35]
[edit] Propulsion
The F100-PW-220/220E was the result of the USAF's Alternate Fighter Engine (AFE) program (colloquially known as "the Great Engine War"), which also saw the entry of General Electric as an F-16 engine provider. Its F110-GE-100 turbofan was limited by the original inlet to thrust of 25,735 lbf (114.5 kN), the Modular Common Inlet Duct allowed the F110 to achieve its maximum thrust of 28,984 lbf (128.9 kN). (To distinguish between aircraft equipped with these two engines and inlets, from the Block 30 series on, blocks ending in "0" (e.g., Block 30) are powered by GE, and blocks ending in "2" (e.g., Block 32) are fitted with Pratt & Whitney engines.)[65][67]
The Increased Performance Engine (IPE) program led to the 29,588 lbf (131.6 kN) F110-GE-129 on the Block 50 and 29,160 lbf (129.4 kN) F100-PW-229 on the Block 52. F-16s began flying with these IPE engines in the early 1990s. Altogether, of the 1,446 F-16C/Ds ordered by the USAF, 556 were fitted with F100-series engines and 890 with F110s.[35] The United Arab Emirates’ Block 60 is powered by the General Electric F110-GE-132 turbofan, which is rated at a maximum thrust of 32,500 lbf (144.6 kN), the highest developed for the F-16.[68][69]
[edit] Operational history
Main article: F-16 Fighting Falcon operational history
Due to their ubiquity, F-16s have participated in numerous conflicts, most of them in the Middle East.[edit] United States
The F-16 is being used by the active duty USAF, Air Force Reserve, and Air National Guard units, the USAF aerial demonstration team, the U.S. Air Force Thunderbirds, and as an adversary-aggressor aircraft by the United States Navy at the Naval Strike and Air Warfare Center.The U.S. Air Force, to include the Air Force Reserve and the Air National Guard, has flown the F-16 in combat during Operation Desert Storm in 1991, and in the Balkans later in the 1990s. F-16s also patrolled the no-fly zones in Iraq during Operations Northern Watch and Southern Watch and served during the wars in Afghanistan (Operation Enduring Freedom) and Iraq (Operation Iraqi Freedom) in the 2000s. Most recently, the U.S. has deployed them to enforce the no-fly zone in Libya.
The F-16 is scheduled to remain in service with the U.S. Air Force until 2025.[70] The planned replacement is the F-35A version of the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II, which will gradually begin replacing a number of multi-role aircraft among the program's member nations.
[edit] Israel
The following year, during the 1982 Lebanon War Israeli F-16s engaged Syrian aircraft in one of the largest air battles involving jet aircraft, which began on 9 June and continued for two more days. Israeli Air Force F-16s were credited with numerous air-to-air kills during the conflict.[71][73] F-16s were also used in their ground-attack role for strikes against targets in Lebanon. IAF F-16s participated in the 2006 Lebanon War and during the attacks in the Gaza strip in December 2008.[74]
[edit] Pakistan
During the Soviet-Afghan war, between May 1986 and January 1989, Pakistan Air Force (PAF) F-16s shot down at least 10 intruders from Afghanistan.[75]The Pakistan Air Force has used its F-16s in various foreign and internal military exercises, such as the "Indus Vipers" exercise in 2008 conducted jointly with Turkey.[76] Since May 2009, the PAF has also been using their F-16 fleet to attack militant positions and support the Pakistan Army's operations in North-West Pakistan against the Taliban insurgency.[77]
[edit] Other
The Royal Netherlands Air Force, Belgian Air Force, Turkish Air Force, Royal Danish Air Force, Royal Norwegian Air Force and Venezuela have flown the F-16 on combat missions.[78][79] A Serbian MiG-29 was shot down by a Dutch F-16AM during the Kosovo War in 1999.[80] Belgian and Danish F-16s also participated in joint operations over Kosovo during the war.[80][edit] Variants
Main article: F-16 Fighting Falcon variants
While many F-16s were produced according to these block designs, there have been many other variants with significant changes, usually due to modification programs. Other changes have resulted in role-specialization, such as the close air support and reconnaissance variants. Several models were also developed to test new technology. The F-16 design also inspired the design of other aircraft, which are considered derivatives. Older F-16s are to be converted into drone targets.[81]
- F-16A/B
- The F-16A (single seat) and F-16B (two seat) were initial production variants. These variants include the Block 1, 5, 10 and 20 versions. Block 15 was the first major change to the F-16 with larger horizontal stabilizers. It is the most numerous F-16 variant with 475 produced.[82]
- F-16C/D
- The F-16C (single seat) and F-16D (two seat) variants entered production in 1984. The first C/D version was the Block 25 with improved cockpit avionics and radar which added all-weather capability with beyond-visual-range (BVR) AIM-7 and AIM-120 air-air missiles. Block 30/32, 40/42, and 50/52 were later C/D versions.[83] The F-16C/D had a unit cost of US$18.8 million (1998).[1]
- F-16E/F
- The F-16E (single seat) and F-16F (two seat) are newer F-16 variants. The Block 60 version is based on the F-16C/D Block 50/52 and has been developed especially for the United Arab Emirates (UAE). It features improved AN/APG-80 Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radar, avionics, conformal fuel tanks (CFTs), and the more powerful GE F110-132 engine.[84][85]
- F-16IN
- For the Indian MRCA competition for the Indian Air Force, Lockheed Martin offered the F-16IN Super Viper.[86] The F-16IN is based on the F-16E/F Block 60 and features conformal fuel tanks; AN/APG-80 AESA radar, GE F110-132A engine with FADEC controls; electronic warfare suite and infra-red searching (IRST); updated glass cockpit; and a helmet-mounted cueing system.[87] As of 2011, the F-16IN is no longer in the competition.[88]
- F-16IQ
- In September 2010, the Defense Security Cooperation Agency informed the United States Congress of a possible Foreign Military Sale of 18 F-16IQ aircraft along with the associated equipment and services to the newly reformed Iraqi Air Force. Total value of sale is estimated at US$4.2 billion.[89]
[edit] Operators
Main article: General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon operators
[edit] Notable accidents and incidents
- On 8 May 1975, while practicing a 9-g aerial display maneuver with the second YF-16 (tail number 72-1568) at Fort Worth, prior to being sent to the Paris Air Show, one of the main landing gear jammed. The test pilot, Neil Anderson, had to perform an emergency gear-up landing and chose to do so in the grass, hoping to minimize damage and to avoid injuring any observers. The aircraft was only slightly damaged, but due to the mishap the first prototype was sent to the Paris Air Show in its place.[91]
- On 11 February 1992, an F-16 from the Royal Netherlands Air Force crashed into the city of Hengelo. The fighter suffered engine failure shortly after takeoff and the pilot tried to return to the nearby Twente air base. The pilot ejected and landed safely on the roof of a building. The F-16 crashed between houses in a residential area, without causing any injuries on the ground.[92]
- During a joint Army-Air Force exercise being conducted at Pope AFB, North Carolina, on 23 March 1994, F-16D (AF Serial No. 88-0171) of the 23d Fighter Wing / 74th Fighter Squadron was simulating an engine-out approach when it collided with a USAF C-130E. Both F-16 crew members ejected, but their aircraft, on full afterburner, continued on an arc towards Green Ramp and struck a USAF C-141 that was embarking US Army paratroopers. This accident resulted in 24 fatalities and at least 80 others injured. It has since been known as the "Green Ramp disaster".[93]
- On 27 March 2000, an Israeli Air Force F-16D-30F of 109 Sq based at Ramat David Air Base crashed into the Mediterranean Sea during a training flight 17 nmi (31 km) off the coastal village of Atlit in northern Israel. The pilot, Major Yonatan Begin, was a grandson of former Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin. Neither he nor his co-pilot notified their ground controllers of any problems.[94]
- On 15 September 2003, a U.S. Air Force Thunderbird F-16C crashed during a Mountain Home AFB, Idaho, air show. Captain Christopher Stricklin attempted a "Split S" maneuver based on an incorrect mean-sea-level altitude of the airfield. Climbing to only 1,670 ft (510 m) above ground level instead of 2,500 ft (760 m), Stricklin had insufficient altitude to complete the maneuver, but was able to guide the aircraft away from the spectators and ejected less than one second before impact. The pilot survived with only minor injuries; the aircraft was destroyed. US Air Force procedure for demonstration "Split-S" maneuvers was changed to require pilots and air controllers to both work in above mean-sea-level altitudes.[95][96]
- On 23 May 2006, a Greek F-16 and a Turkish F-16 collided 10 miles (16 km) from Karpathos island. Greek pilot Kostas Iliakis was killed, and Turkish pilot Halil Ibrahim Ozdemir bailed out and was rescued by a cargo ship.[97][98]
- On 27 November 2006, a USAF F-16CG from the 524th Fighter Squadron crashed northwest of Baghdad, Iraq killing the pilot, Major Troy "Trojan" Gilbert. Major Gilbert was supporting a troops-in-contact situation where US forces were under small arms fire from insurgents. The cause of the crash was attributed to pilot error.[99]
- On 13 September 2009, an Israeli Air Force F-16A crashed while on a training flight over the southern Hebron hills, killing the pilot, Assaf Ramon. Assaf was the son of Ilan Ramon, a former F-16 pilot and Israel's first astronaut, killed in the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster.[100]
- On 26 August 2010, two Greek Air Force F-16s collided in mid-air off the southwestern coast of Crete, killing one and injuring two pilots.[101]
- On 14 February 2011, two Royal Thai Air Force F-16s crashed in northeastern Thailand during Exercise Cobra Gold. Both pilots ejected safely. The cause of the accident has not been determined.[102][importance?]
- On 28 July 2011 a US Air Force F-16 of the Alabama Air National Guard overran a runway and was damaged during an exhibition at EAA AirVenture in Oshkosh, WI.[103][importance?]
[edit] Specifications (F-16C Block 30)
- Crew: 1
- Length: 49 ft 5 in (15.06 m)
- Wingspan: 32 ft 8 in (9.96 m)
- Height: 16 ft (4.88 m)
- Wing area: 300 ft² (27.87 m²)
- Airfoil: NACA 64A204 root and tip
- Empty weight: 18,900 lb (8,570 kg)
- Loaded weight: 26,500 lb (12,000 kg)
- Max takeoff weight: 42,300 lb (19,200 kg)
- Powerplant: 1 × F110-GE-100 afterburning turbofan
- Dry thrust: 17,155 lbf (76.3 kN)
- Thrust with afterburner: 28,600 lbf (127 kN)
- Maximum speed:
- Combat radius: 340 mi (295 nmi, 550 km) on a hi-lo-hi mission with six 1,000 lb (450 kg) bombs
- Ferry range: 2,280 NM (2,620 mi, 4,220 km) with drop tanks
- Service ceiling: 60,000+ ft (18,000+ m)
- Rate of climb: 50,000 ft/min (254 m/s)
- Wing loading: 88.3 lb/ft² (431 kg/m²)
- Thrust/weight: 1.095
- Guns: 1× 20 mm (0.787 in) M61 Vulcan 6-barreled gatling cannon, 511 rounds
- Hardpoints: 2× wing-tip Air-to-air missile launch rails, 6× under-wing & 3× under-fuselage pylon stations holding up to 17,000 lb (7,700 kg) of payload
- Rockets:
- Missiles:
- Air-to-air missiles:
- 2× AIM-7 Sparrow or
- 6× AIM-9 Sidewinder or
- 6× IRIS-T or
- 6× AIM-120 AMRAAM or
- 6× Python-4
- Air-to-ground missiles:
- 6× AGM-45 Shrike or
- 6× AGM-65 Maverick or
- 4× AGM-88 HARM
- Anti-ship missiles:
- 2× AGM-84 Harpoon or
- 4× AGM-119 Penguin
- Air-to-air missiles:
- Bombs:
- 8× CBU-87 Combined Effects Munition
- 8× CBU-89 Gator mine
- 8× CBU-97 Sensor Fuzed Weapon
- Wind Corrected Munitions Dispenser capable
- 4× GBU-10 Paveway II
- 6× GBU-12 Paveway II
- 4× JDAM
- 4× Mark 84 general-purpose bombs
- 8× Mark 83 GP bombs
- 12× Mark 82 GP bombs
- 8× Small Diameter Bomb
- 3× B61 nuclear bomb
- Others:
- SUU-42A/A Flares/Infrared decoys dispenser pod and chaff pod or
- AN/ALQ-131 & AN/ALQ-184 ECM pods or
- LANTIRN, Lockheed Martin Sniper XR & LITENING targeting pods or
- up to 3× 300/330/370 US gallon Sargent Fletcher drop tanks for ferry flight/extended range/loitering time.
- AN/APG-68 radar
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